THE HISTORY OF TRANSBOUNDARY
WATER RESOURCES DISPUTES OF TURKEY AND
TURKEY'S APPROACH
Assist. Prof. Dr.
Zülal KELEŞ
University of Pamukkale
Department of History
The disputes over water, which is of
one the fundamental needs of life, have
a background as old as the human history.
The relative imbalances in the distribution
of natural water resources by countries,
the disparities in their qualities,
the rapid increase in population, pollution
issue, uncontrolled and misuse of the
water and like causes, lead to vital
disputes.
Only the 1% of the total world water
reserves carries the required fresh
water qualities that are suitable for
human life. In accordance with the evaluations
of the United Nations Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO), 98 % of the fresh
water at the Arctic Region, which constitutes
the 2.6 % of the total world fresh water
reserves, is in unusable condition.
In contrary to present troubles, it
is observed that water consumption have
risen 400 % in recent years. (1)
Near to the end of 20th century and
especially in the years of 1990's, scientists
and strategists stated expressly in
various scenarios that water is going
to be a cause for wars. Turkey is shown
as one of the prime actors of potential
war scenarios of water disputes, due
to its relations with the Middle Eastern
countries, geography of disparate water
resources. According to the evaluations
of scientists, there are 26 countries
that are poor of water resources in
the world and nine of these countries
are in the Middle East. The limit of
being poor in water is defined as annual
1000 cubic meters water consumption
per person. (2)
There is a popular belief that Turkey
is rich in water resources. But, when
compared with the countries, rich in
water in the world, its clearly seen
that it is not so. In water rich countries
water consumption per person in a year
is accepted as approximately 10000 cubic
meters. This consumption is around 1830
cubic meters in Turkey. This rate is
about 2362 cubic meters in Syria and
about 5192 cubic meters in Iraq, who
claim being poor in water resources.
(3) If required precautions are not
taken, it is forecasted that Turkey
will get closer to "water poor"
limit after the year of 2010. So, Turkey
cannot be assumed as a "water rich"
country.
In war scenarios, that Turkey is included;
the probable disputes originate from
international waters or transboundary
water resources. It is worthwhile to
explain both of the concepts. The first
one, are the waters which have place
in the lands of two different countries,
making boundaries between these countries
and they are subject to share by these
countries. The second one, are the waters
which originates in and flow through
the lands of a country and by flowing
over the boundaries of a neighboring
country, running in the land of this
country and finally flowing into the
sea. But recently the terminology of
"international waters" is
replaced with "transboundary waters".
Besides being used for navigation, "Transboundary
water" phrase is becoming more
widespread for the waters, which make
boundaries between two or more countries,
or for the waters which originate and
run in different countries and that
are utilized for irrigation, drinking,
and as a source of energy. The proposal
on the "Agreement on the Law of
Use of International Waters Except Navigation"
which was prepared by the United Nations
International Law Commission was voted
and accepted in the General Assembly
of United Nations in May 1977. The proposal
defines the basins of the transboundary
waters as International Water Routes.
In that context, besides the countries
of water basins, it is possible for
other countries that have economic agreements
with them, may also participate in the
negotiations related to those waters.
Turkey objected the proposal, which
accepts Tigris and Euphrates rivers
as transboundary international waters.
(4)
Tigris and Euphrates rivers are the
main water resources of Turkey, which
cause disputes between Syria and Iraq.
Tigris River originates from the Mountain
of Dumlu near Erzurum in Turkey and
by taking its main resources from the
Eastern Anatolia region runs over the
Syrian and Iraqi land and by uniting
Euphrates there and named as "Shattul
Arab" and flows into the Gulf of
Basra. (5) The annual water potential
of the river changes per seasons; and
it is observed that yearly potential
of the river falls to its 1/3 level
in dry seasons. According to data of
State Hydraulic Department (per 1937-1993
measurements), annual volume of the
water is 31 billion 580 million cubic
meters. The contribution of Syrian land
to Tigris River is 3.4 billion cubic
meters while Iraqi land has no contribution.
Briefly, 87,7 % of total Tigris water
sources from Turkey while 11,3 % of
it comes from Syria. The volume of water
between Iraqi and Syrian borders reaches
35-35,5 billion cubic meters yearly.
(6)
Euphrates River originates from the
Mountain of Hazer Baba near Elazıg in
Turkey (another source of Euphrates
is the creek of Maden, which originates
from the Mountain of Maden (South East
Taurus) feeded by the waters of Batmansu,
Ilısu, Batan and Yanarsu which are originated
from the mountainous area of Eastern
Anatolia and other sources, Euphrates
flows about 70 km.s by establishing
the Turkey-Syrian border and runs through
the Iraqi land. The 51,90' % of its
water is generated in Turkey while 48,10
% originates from Iraq. (7) Syria, though
has no contribution to the Euphrates
River, and is the country that has the
minimum total contribution to both of
the rivers, is the initiator of the
most of the water disputes.
It is necessary to mention also Syria's
approach towards River of Asi by which
Syria is a lower stream country. Though
utilizing the water as required, Syria
is accusing Turkey frequently by keeping
the water of Asi, and leading international
negotiations on the subject. Rising
from the Bekaa Valley of Lebanon, Asi
water flows towards north. Flowing along
Syrian land via Humus and Hama cities,
enters into Turkey's border and passes
through Antakya and runs into Mediterranean
near Samandag. Before entering Turkey,
Asi flows along the Turkey-Syria border
about 20 km.s and creeks of Karasu and
Afsin rivers in Turkey joins to Asi.
Annual average water rate is 2,5 billion
cubic meters. Still claiming Hatay as
a part of its own land, Syria assumes
Asi as one of its national waters and
utilizes as its own. In the summer season,
completely shutting down the naturally
decreased water and by polluting it
with chemical waste, causing great damage
in agriculture at the Amik Valley.
Aras River is another transboundary
and boundary making river of Turkey.
Feeded from the various sources of Eastern
Anatolia, flows along Turkey - Caucasia
- Iran borders and finally runs into
Caspian Lake. Total length of the river
is 1059 km.s, while 548 km.s of the
river is in Turkey. Aras establishes
150 km.s boundary between Turkey and
Armenia and then enters into Iran. So
it is transboundary water, with this
specialty. Today no major disputes exits
on Aras River since required treaties
signed among the parties and also in
the future no major conflict is expected
between Turkey, Iran and Armenia upon
political and economic cooperation.
Maritsa River, which originates in
Bulgaria, joins with Arda and Tunca
Rivers near Edirne, which are flowing
through Bulgaria and Western Thrace
respectively. Tunca establishes 61 km.s
length Turkey-Bulgaria border until
joins to Maritsa River. Ergene River,
which also joins to Maritsa River, is
280 km.s long and it totally flows in
Turkey. (8) "A Master Plan for
Maritsa Basin" was prepared in
1951 between Turkey and Greece against
water floods. But the origin of the
water is in Bulgaria. Since Bulgaria
was not participated in this plan, required
facilities could not be completed. The
water is getting polluted due to its
misuse by Bulgaria and the level of
the water is decreasing in summers and
its quality gets worse due to projects
developed by Bulgaria. In winter times,
solutions are looked for preventing
floods by pumping the excess water by
collecting them in dams, while in summers
water is bought from Bulgaria. As can
be seen, Turkey is in a search for developing
projects to share its waters and even
looking for a base for conciliation
with Greece and Armenia, who sometimes
have hostile attitudes towards Turkey.
But the proverb, "First for me,
than for friends" must be taken
into consideration. Giving priority
to Turkish people and their needs is
very natural by considering the inequitable
distribution of water per regions.
The first treaty on water issue with
Syria, who is expected to create bigger
disputes in future, is Ankara Treaty,
dated 21 October 1921. The first 12
articles of the treaty, were envisaging
the share of Kuveyk River by considering
the needs of parties between Aleppo
and the Turkish region at the north
of Aleppo. The city of Aleppo could
utilize from Tigris Water "by its
own disbursements". (9)
Another agreement related to the use
of international water in which Turkey
is a party, is the Lausanne Treaty.
Article 109 of the treaty briefly says,
if a country's boundaries changes and
the water systems that are used by this
country is left in the land of the neighboring
country or vise versa; a new agreement
has to be made for the use of water
by keeping the interests of parties
and by reserving the extended rights.
In case of a conflict the problem will
be settled by arbitration. (10)
According to the mentioned Article
of the Lausanne Treaty, with no important
contribution to Tigris and Euphrates
Rivers, Syria has no strong legal basis
to claim for rights. But with the Article
13 of the "Friendship and Good
Neighboring" agreement signed between
Turkey and France (for Syria and Lebanon)
in 1926, the article related to the
equal share of Kuveyk River between
Aleppo and its northern Turkish region
in Ankara Treaty is accepted. With this
agreement, Turkey accepted to give water
of Tigris River to Aleppo. (11)
The protocol of "Arranging the
Waters of Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
" was signed as an attachment to
the Article 6 of the "Friendship
and Good Neighboring" agreement
of 29 March 1946, signed between Turkey
and Iraq. (12) Within this agreement;
construction of "flow search stations"
in Turkey for obtaining regular water
and preventing floods and sharing their
costs equally, informing Iraq about
the search results and the facilities
to be constructed in Turkey were included.
The agreement has still find no implementation
though has not a time limit and still
in force.
Turkey had no major problem with Syria
and Iraq since 1954, till the realization
of Keban and Karakaya dams on Tigris.
The construction of Keban Dam in 1964,
caused anxiety to Syria and Iraq and
both of these countries accused Turkey
for gaining dominance over the Middle
East by using "water" as a
political tool. Actually Keban Dam project
was a project that would not change
the volume of water in the basin, without
harming the storage facilities in both
countries, just in the contrary arranges
the 70 % of the Tigris Water. In 1964,
in the phase of keeping water in reservoirs,
Turkey promised to give 350 cubic meters
water per second to Syria and kept its
word. (13)
Though accused Turkey with inequitable
usage of water, by constructing dams
on Asi River Syria has started to use
water as wished and not give water to
Amik plain. Syria constructed Tabka
Dam on Tigris with the financial aid
of Soviet Union. In 1974 construction
of Keban and Tabka dams are completed
and the time of keeping water in reservoirs
coincided. That incident caused a conflict
between Turkey and Syria and also led
a major dispute between Syria and Iraq.
Giving too little water to Iraq from
Tabka Dam, almost caused a war between
these countries. With the intervention
of Saudi Arabia and Soviet Union a war
situation was prevented.
Syria had also tried to prevent the
construction of Karakaya Dam by several
international attempts. (14) For the
transboundary waters, World Bank proposed
a model for negotiations as a preliminary
requirement for financing of the Dam
as requested by Syria and Iraq. Turkey
did not accept this proposal since the
model was based on energy generation
rather than water consumption as desired
by Turkey. Turkey continued technical
negotiations and bilaterally announced
that Turkey is going to give 500 cubic
meters water per second valid until
a water consuming facility constructed,
till September 1976.
Development objectives of Turkey's
by utilizing Southeast Anatolian sources,
initiated by the construction of Keban
and Karakaya Dams, created a new dimension
in the disputes. The GAP (Southeastern
Anatolian Project), which is realized
in 1980, increased the disputes with
Syria to the peak level. The project,
which includes 22 dams, 19 hydroelectricity
power plants, 2 major irrigation canals
on Tigris and Euphrates, shall ensure
the irrigation of 1.7 million hectares
and the generation of 27 billion kilowatt
electricity energy. GAP is a huge project,
which also provides major opportunities
for regional development. It includes
not only irrigation or generation of
electricity energy potentials, but also
includes multiple social developments.
(15) When Turkey gained technical and
political control over the downstream
waters with this project; Syria supported
PKK terrorist organization by letting
them reside in Syria, fed them and helped
training of 30-40.000 PKK terrorists
at the Bekaa Valley.
When we compare the size of productive
land that is planned to be irrigated
by Tigris Water by Turkey and Syria;
Turkey projects to irrigate 59 % of
the land that's in the quality of irrigation
by GAP, while Syria plans to irrigate
all of its land by Tigris Water. (16)
Syria and Iraq are approaching to water
dispute from the angle of "vested
right or historical right". The
claim of these countries is that; they
own a historical right by utilizing
the water of these two rivers for about
10.000 years. Though Turkey has followed
a policy, based on sovereignty principle,
on water issue. (17) Nevertheless Turkey,
by taking into account the global practice
in approaching to water disputes, after
the long tension periods and the negotiation
of the dispute on international platforms,
is changing its approach to basin principle
for the just and rational utilization
of the water. For the realization of
equal and rational sharing of water
among the three countries, Turkey has
made a very important attempt by proposing
the formation of a "Joint Technical
Committee" for making studies on
land, plants and engineering. "Joint
Technical Committee", which was
established by "Joint Economic
Commission Protocol" signed between
Turkey and Iraq, was given the duty
of identifying the methodology for the
determination of the acceptable and
sufficient level of transboundary water.
"Joint Technical Committee"
is first held in 1982 between Turkey
and Iraq, later Syria also participated.
Turkey brought the "Three Stage
Plan For the Equitable and Realistic
Usage of Transboundary Tigris and Euphrates
Waters" project to the agenda in
the 5th meeting of "Joint Technical
Committee", which was held in 5-8
November 1984 (18). By taking into consideration
the reports of International Law Commission,
Turkey followed a positive approach
while presenting the project. According
to Turkey; Tigris and Euphrates, joining
as (Shattu'l Arab), and flowing into
the Gulf of Basra as a transboundary
water system. Iraq joined these two
rivers via Thartar Canal. So, some portion
of the land of Iraq is or can be irrigated
by the water of these two rivers. (19)
Turkey repeated this three-stage plan
proposal at 26 June 1990 meeting, held
by the participation of three parties
and also in bilateral meetings with
Syria and Iraq in 1993. In the first
stage; the inventory studies of water
resources at the basin; in the second
stage: determination of soil types and
the criteria of drainage and at the
third stage: evaluation and improvement
of soil resources were proposed by Three
Stage Plan. In the framework of the
plan, Turkey's proposal for the joint
realization of land and water resources
inventory of the three countries was
rejected by Syria and Iraq. Iraq was
opposing the proposal while requesting
more utilization of water, both of the
countries rejected the identification
of two rivers as a one water system
and transfer of water from Euphrates
to Tigris. Since they did not trust
each other and the evaluation of the
facts in their areas did not match with
their interests, they requested to make
evaluation studies "on the table"
and with the data they provided. They
claimed that the sharing must be in
mathematical rate as 1/3. (20)
During Prime Minister Turgut Özal's
visit to Syria in 1987, a protocol on
Turkey's annual release of approximately
500 cubic meters water per second was
signed. (21) According to the Protocol,
if monthly release was to be low, it
would be compensated in the following
month. Turkey, that has no written commitment
on the volume of water to be released,
signed this agreement with the expectation
of Syria would cut its support to PKK
terrorist organization. Nevertheless
Syria did not act as expected and returned
to its former politics, after passively
supported the terrorists a while. By
continuing hostile approach, making
wrong investments, with uncompleted
projects and insufficient technology,
and by exaggerating its irrigatable
land, Syria accused Turkey with every
opportunity when facing with any problems
during the use of water.
Syria, by implementing electricity and
water cuts in its country during the
impounding of the Atatürk dam, publicized
Turkey to its public, Arab world and
world public opinion as cutting the
water on purpose. Actually Turkey, during
this period continued to release water
from the waterways underneath of the
dam and officially informed the parties,
gave information to Iraqi and Syrian
specialists about the precautions and
by releasing 763 cubic meters water
from 20 November 1990 to 13 January
1990 (start of impounding), assisted
Iraq and Syria to accumulate the excess
water in their dams. Average water released
per second was about 509 cubic meters
during impounding of the reservoir between
13 January to 13 February 1990. Even
that amount shows goodwill and efforts
to keep its promises. In that period
Syria tried to impress world public
opinion by accusing Turkey to use water
as a tool to dominate its neighbors.
Further accusing Turkey by acting against
good neighborhood spirit, Syria continued
to support terrorist organization PKK.
In order to prevent this support and
to act as required by its relations,
Turkey kept going on its political and
economical approaches. In 20 January
1993, Prime Ministers of Turkey and
Syria met in Syria and a joint declaration
was released after negotiations for
the determination of the amount of water
to be allocated to parties before the
end of 1993. Syria seemed as to seize
its support to PKK for a short period,
but when the proposed Ministries' meetings
in May could not be held, soon re-opened
the camps by claiming incompliance with
agreement. (22)
Though similar problems exist with Iraq
too, since Iraq has not brought the
water matter to the agenda in recent
years, it seems as problems only exist
between Turkey and Syria. Actually,
in each attempt Ankara has made related
to Tigris and Euphrates Waters, Iraq
has reacted like Syria, and not hesitated
to play the card of terror. Today USA
is in power in Iraq, who is the chief
architect of "Global Status quo"
and who supports "basin principle"
in global water disputes since 1920.
(23)
Israel, one the closest "strategic
partners" of USA, is observed as
the country that deeply in need of water
in the Middle East. For this reason,
while Turkey follows consistent transboundary
water politics in scientific and objective
measures, must also analyze USA's, Israel's
and EU's water strategies prior to determine
its strategy.
Actually, Turkey has developed certain
projects in that direction. One of these
projects is Manavgat Water Project.
The mentioned project envisages the
collection of some water of Manavgat
Creek near Belen Mediterranean region
and transportation of them to the Middle
Eastern countries by tankers or by giant
plastic gallons. 4 million cubic meters
water of Manavgat Creek flows daily
into the sea. This project aimed to
collect 500.000 cubic meters of this
water. While half of this water was
to be used for irrigation, other half,
as potable water, was to be stored in
two platforms on the sea for distribution.
(24)
Another important attempt is "Peace
Water Project". This project came
to the agenda in 1987, envisaged to
transport the water of Seyhan and Ceyhan
Rivers, flowing into the sea, to the
Middle Eastern Countries (Syria, Jordan,
Israel) with pipelines. Project is twofold
as East and West directions. West Direction
reaches to Syria, Jordan and Saudi Arabia
over Seyhan and İslahiye. Daily water
transportation capacity of this direction
is 3.5 million cubic meters. Eastern
direction reaches Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar,
and Shorjah in United Arab Emirates
over Iraq. Daily water transportation
capacity of this direction is calculated
as 2.5 million cubic meters. (25)
The realization of this project is
very difficult in the view of today's
political circumstances. Because, these
states have conflicts with each other
and they do not want to depend on water,
which flows through pipelines laid in
the lands of others. The project is
technically possible, but almost impossible
from political and economical points
of views. Actually the cost of the project
is high, but if compared with the cost
of desalination of the seawater, it
is one third of it. (26) The primary
requirement of the realization of the
Peace Water Project is the achievement
of peace and security environment in
the region. More important than that,
Turkey should not take such a responsibility
prior to complete its own needed investments.
Jhon Kolar is the architect of "Small
Scale Peace Water Project", which
is presented as an alternative to this
project. This project envisages the
transportation of Göksu and Manavgat
Waters, which are in the south of Turkey
like Ceyhan and Seyhan, to Jordan. The
second alternative of the "Small
Scale Peace Water Project" envisages
the transportation of water to Syria
via pipelines. There, Syria, by not
using the water of Yarmuk River and
directing it to Taberiye Lake, to establish
a Water Bank till Israel or Golan Hights
and meet water requirements of Syria,
Jordan, Palestine and Israel. (27) Peace
Water Project was not favored by Syria
and other states of the region since
Turkey gains influence; besides Israel
also benefits. Jordan requests Manavgat
Water for a symbolic price even for
free of charge. Turkey, deservedly,
does not accept that. (28)
It is obvious that Syria and Iraq are
not keeping the water dispute on the
agenda not only for their water needs,
but using it as a tool for social solidarity
in their internal politics. During impounding
of Atatürk Dam; Syria, while tried to
influence the world public opinion with
the claim of Turkey's use of water as
a means of political pressure and internally
by artificial cuts of electricity and
water tried to create social solidarity
and national consciousness.
Turkey, except 1987 Agreement, has
not taken any legal responsibility on
transboundary waters. Besides, Syria
by violating the Agreement in a short
time, exhibited a behavior to cancel
the Agreement unilaterally. Syria's
future approach is not very clear since
shows Hatay as it is own land, by arbitrarily
uses Asi River.
In the century we are living; for the
use of international or transboundary
waters, Syria and other parties as well
as Turkey, are in need of determining
the most productive methods of water
using with serious and scientific studies.
Another item that must be considered
is the evaluation of the subject matter
in the integrity of the security requirements
of the Middle East.
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1. Ramazan ÖZEY, Dünya Denkleminde
Ortadoğu "Ülkeler - İnsanlar -
Sorunları" İstanbul 1997 ,p.300
2. Mehmet TOMANBAY, Dünya Su Bütçesi
ve Ortadoğu Gerçeği, Ankara 1998, p.30
- 31 0
3. Özey, a.g.e.s . s.307; Bülent KENEŞ
İs Turkey the Prime Cause for a Potential
Conflict on Water? " , Turkish
Probe Opinion 01.09.2002, p.5
4. Cumhuriyet, 01,05,1997
5. Reşat İZBIRAK, Türkiye I, Düzenleyen
Cemal Kurnaz, İstanbul 1996, 5.185-186
6. Keneş,ibid., p. 5
7. Tomanbay, ibid, p. 80-82
8. İzbırak, ibid, p. 170
9. İsmail SOYSAL, Tarihçeleri ve Açıklamalarıyla
Birlikte Türkiye'nin Siyaset Antlaşmaları
(1920-1945) c. I, Ankara 1983 p. 52
10. Seha Lütfi MERAY, Lozan barış Konferansı
Tutanaklar Belgeler, İkinci Takım, c.
II, Ankara 1973, p. 43-44
11. Hüseyin PAZARCI, Uluslararası Hukuk
Dersleri, II. Book (6. Edition), Ankara
1999, p. 301, Soysal, ibid., p. 282
12. Pazarcı, ibid.,300
13. Şükrü ELEKDAĞ, "Suriye'nin
Gerçek Niyetleri", Milliyet, 26,08,1996
14. Pazarcı, ibid., p. 301
15. Tomanbay, ibid, p. 143
16. See. Tomanbay, ibid, p. 148-152
17. Lütfü ŞEHSUVAROĞLU, Su Barışı, Türkiye
ve Ortadoğu Su Politikaları, Ankara
2000, p. 134
18. Keneş, ibid, p. 5
19. Tomanbay, ibid, p. 154
20. Şehsuvaroğlu, ibid, p. 134; Keneş,
a.g..m. p.5
21. Official Gazette 10,12,1987, Issue
19660
22. Milliyet 02 November 1993; Sabah,
15 November 1993
23. Şehsuvaroğlu, ibid , p:132
24. Tomanbay ibid, p.:126-127
25. Tomanbayibid, p.,. 124-125
26. Yeni Şafak, 13,02,1996; Tomanbay,
ibid, p. 125
27. Özeyibid, p. 308
28. Ali SİRMEN, "Orta Doğu'da Su
Sorunu, Cumhuriyet, 10,03,2000
Editor's
Note
